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Battery research and testing
Technologies to address battery research, production, and testing
Thermo Fisher Scientific offers a broad range of tools and instruments for battery research, control of raw materials, and production of current and advanced battery technology.
Analytical solutions that assess electrodes, separators, binder, electrolytes, and other components can help improve battery integrity and reduce the risk of battery failure. In the lab, in the field, or on the production line, the proper analytical instrumentation can help ensure high-purity lithium and other metals for battery development and manufacturing.
Whether you are producing current or improved lithium-ion batteries or designing and testing next-generation battery technologies, Thermo Scientific instruments and software will help you understand their chemistry and maximize their performance and efficiency.
| Electron Microscopy | XPS | EDS | Raman FTIR |
| Multiscale imaging and analysis of battery materials. |
Surface analysis. Quantitative chemical state. |
Elemental imaging at high spatial resolution. |
Chemical compound identification and imaging. |
Software Operations, laboratory management, data management, visualization, and analytics |
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| XRF/XRD/OES | Rheometry & Twin-Screw Extrusion | Complementary Technologies |
Elemental and structural analysis. |
Characterization of flow properties. Mixing of electrode pastes and polymer compounds. |
Chromatography. Mass spec. Chemicals. In-line processing. |
| Software Operations, laboratory management, data management, visualization, and analytics |
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Inert Gas Sample Transfer Workflow
Sample transfer system
Sample preparation for scanning/transmission electron microscopy (S/TEM) analysis is one of the most critical and time-consuming tasks. It becomes even more challenging if the sample material is air- or moisture-sensitive. The Thermo Scientific Inert Gas Sample Transfer (IGST) Workflow uses tools like the Thermo Scientific CleanConnect Sample Transfer System to protect your sample throughout preparation and imaging, helping you stay focused on your research.
Electron microscopy imaging and analysis of batteries
Multiscale imaging and analysis using electron microscopy and Avizo
In battery research, development, and manufacturing, imaging techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DualBeam (also called focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy or FIB-SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are used primarily to study the structure and chemistry of battery materials and cells in 2D and 3D.
Thermo Scientific electron microscopy solutions can capture and analyze battery images ranging from the mesoscale or macroscale down to the atomic scale, which enables battery researchers and engineers to develop safer, more efficient, more durable, and more environmentally friendly batteries.
Electron microscopy and Avizo Software use cases for battery technology
Challenge |
Technologies |
Solution |
Resources |
Avoid contamination of air-, moisture-, and/or beam-sensitive battery samples during preparation and sample transfer |
IGST workflow: DualBeam, SEM/Desktop SEM (in glove box), TEM, Avizo, CleanConnect |
Complete workflow to enable sample characterization of sensitive battery materials in their native state without contamination |
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Detection of lithium is difficult using SEM, EDS, and TEM |
TOF-SIMS |
Accurately detect and map lithium in battery samples in 2D and 3D down to 10 ppm |
App note: Ion spectroscopy using TOF-SIMS on a Thermo Scientific Helios DualBeam |
TEM |
iDPC technology can clearly image light elements like lithium at atomic scale |
App note: Integrated Differential Phase Contrast on Talos S/TEM |
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Characterize battery structure at different scales beyond the capacity of a single instrument |
CT, SEM, Raman, DualBeam, Avizo, EDS |
Correlative workflow allowing multiscale imaging and analysis of battery microstructure |
App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries |
App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries |
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App note: Understand degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries at different scales |
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Prepare a large 2D area on the sample surface with high polishing quality for 2D imaging and characterization |
DualBeam (Plasma FIB-SEM), EDS |
High-throughput automated spin mill with high surface quality |
App note: Large area automated sample preparation for batteries |
SEM, CleanMill |
Thermo Scientific CleanMill offers a dedicated workflow for air-sensitive samples, an ultra-high energy ion gun for fast polishing, and a cryogenic function to protect sample integrity |
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| Datasheet: CleanMill Broad Ion Beam System | |||
Characterize key microstructure properties (like tortuosity) for electrode structure performance correlations |
DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo |
3D characterization of battery structure · Hardware to image 3D battery structure at different scales · Software to automate 3D imaging data collection · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software workflow for image analysis and quantification |
Blog post/video: Advancing lithium-ion battery technology with 3D imaging |
App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries |
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Characterize beam-sensitive materials like SEI at nanoscale |
TEM, EDS, Avizo |
Nano- and atomic-scale characterization of energy materials · Cryo-EM workflow for accurate data collection with superior EDS performance · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software for structure quantification and visualization |
Brochure: Analytical solutions for battery and energy storage technology |
Characterize beam-sensitive separator samples without damage |
SEM/SDB |
Superior low-KeV imaging and a cryo-FIB milling solution allow characterization of separator microstructure in 2D and 3D |
App note: Strategies for accurate imaging on battery separator structure |
In situ kinetic analysis (like heating) via electron microscope |
SEM |
Multiple in situ heating stage choices with integrated software for Thermo Scientific SEMs to understand cathode synthesis mechanisms |
Brochure: Scanning electron microscopy for lithium battery research |
Probe intrinsic SEI within a coin cell via electron microscopy |
Laser Plasma FIB |
High-energy laser with high milling rate enables direct cross-section milling to understand Li-metal cell degradation mechanism |
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Materials QC requires higher resolution than OM, but floor-based SEMs won’t fit in our lab and manual analysis is too slow |
Desktop SEM |
The Thermo Scientific Phenom XL Desktop SEM can handle high-resolution morphology analysis and QC of anode and cathode materials with high-throughput automation |
Application note: FTIR characterization of lithium salts in an inert atmosphere |
Identification and quantification of metal impurities in materials is critical, but neither ICP nor optical microscopy does both |
Desktop SEM, EDS |
The Thermo Scientific Phenom ParticleX Desktop SEM can identify and quantify particle impurities with high-throughput automated EDS workflow |
Webinar: How to certify your NCM powder quality with SEM+EDS |
Detection of electrode impurities is slow and tedious using normal SEM-to-EDS workflow |
ChemiSEM, EDS |
Thermo Scientific Axia ChemiSEM integrates SEM with “live EDS” for immediate characterization of electrode impurities |
App note: Assessment of contaminants within battery materials via Axia ChemiSEM |
Failure analysis and QC in battery production requires SEM-level resolution, but floor models take too much space |
Desktop SEM |
Compact Phenom Desktop SEMs enable high-resolution, high-throughput analysis of battery materials |
App note: Investigate batteries with a SEM for better performance |
Binder characterization is difficult but crucial to confirm electrode mechanical structure |
SEM, DualBeam |
Superior imaging contrast of unique T3 detector for Thermo Scientific Apreo 2 SEM enables mapping of non-conductive binder distribution within electrode |
Brochure: Scanning electron microscopy for lithium battery research |
Identification of impurities for root cause analysis is difficult using CT alone |
CT/SDB, EDS, Avizo |
A correlative CT/laser PFIB workflow can identify deeply embedded impurities without disassembling the cell |
App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries |
Failure analysis requires high-resolution cross-section polishing while still protecting sample |
SEM, CleanMill |
CleanMill offers a dedicated workflow for air-sensitive samples, an ultra-high energy ion gun for fast polishing, and a cryogenic function to protect sample integrity |
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| Datasheet: CleanMill Broad Ion Beam System |
Abbreviations: Avizo = Avizo Software; CT = Computed tomography; DualBeam = Focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM); EDS = Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; FIB = Focused ion beam; FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; iDPC = Integrated differential phase contrast; IGST = Inert sample gas transfer; SDB = Small DualBeam; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SEM = Scanning electron microscopy; SPE = Solid polymer electrolytes; TEM = Transmission electron microscopy; TOF-SIMS = Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry.
XPS quantitative analysis of batteries
Quantitative surface analysis using XPS
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a surface analysis technique that provides quantitative elemental and chemical state information about the top layers of a material.
XPS is essential for understanding the interface between electrolytes and electrodes. Cathode and anode materials of Li-ion cells can be studied to confirm post-cycling changes in composition, to understand the changes in the chemistry of the electrode components, and to determine how the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer varies in depth as it develops. XPS has proved useful in studying surface pre-treatment of graphite electrode materials to significantly slow the irreversible consumption of material during battery charging.
XPS use cases for battery technology
Challenge |
Technologies |
Solution |
Resources |
Understand stoichiometry of solid electrolyte film as a function of depth |
XPS |
XPS depth profiling can quantify elements at each depth |
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Characterize raw materials |
XPS |
XPS can be used to analyze the surface of powdered materials prior to formation of electrodes, determining stoichiometry and identifying contaminants |
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Measure electrode surface chemistry |
XPS |
XPS can quantify the chemical states present at the electrode surface |
App note: Analysis of electrode materials for lithium ion batteries |
Track the evolution of the SEI layer |
XPS |
Materials can be depth profiled using XPS and a cluster ion source to follow the development of the SEI layer after cycling |
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In situ electrode cycling |
XPS |
Electrodes can be operated in situ to monitor spectral changes as they are charged and discharged |
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Investigate changes in separator chemistry during cell lifetime |
XPS |
The surface chemistry of polymeric materials is easily characterized using XPS |
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Abbreviations: XPS = X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
High spatial resolution elemental analysis of batteries
Elemental imaging at high spatial resolution using EDS
Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS or EDX) is a commonly used analytical method that permits fast, accurate, non-destructive compositional analysis while using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The physical interaction of the electron beam with the sample generates X-rays that are characteristic of the sample’s elemental composition and allow the identification and interpretation of the spatial distribution of materials within a sample.
For battery research, EDS is an invaluable tool for identifying intended materials within a battery as well as the contaminants that limit its performance or safety.
EDS use cases for battery technology
Challenge |
Technologies |
Solution |
Resources |
Characterize battery structure at different scales beyond the capacity of a single instrument |
CT, SEM, Raman, DualBeam, Avizo, EDS |
Correlative workflow allowing multiscale imaging and analysis of battery microstructure |
App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries |
App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries |
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App note: Understand degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries at different scales |
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Prepare a large 2D area on the sample surface with high polishing quality for 2D imaging and characterization |
DualBeam (Plasma FIB-SEM), EDS |
High-throughput automated spin mill with high surface quality |
App note: Large area automated sample preparation for batteries |
Characterize key microstructure properties (like tortuosity) for electrode structure performance correlations |
DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo |
3D characterization of battery structure · Hardware to image 3D battery structure at different scales · Software to automate 3D imaging data collection · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software workflow for image analysis and quantification |
Blog post/video: Advancing lithium-ion battery technology with 3D imaging |
App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries |
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Characterize beam-sensitive materials like SEI at nanoscale |
TEM, EDS, Avizo |
Nano- and atomic-scale characterization of energy materials · Cryo-EM workflow for accurate data collection with superior EDS performance · Avizo Software for structure quantification and visualization |
Brochure: Analytical solutions for battery and energy storage technology |
Identification and quantification of metal impurities in materials is critical, but neither ICP nor optical microscopy does both |
Desktop SEM, EDS |
The Phenom ParticleX Desktop SEM can identify and quantify particle impurities with high-throughput automated EDS workflow |
Webinar: How to certify your NCM powder quality with SEM+EDS |
Detection of electrode impurities is slow and tedious using normal SEM-to-EDS workflow |
ChemiSEM, EDS |
Axia ChemiSEM integrates SEM with “live EDS” for immediate characterization of electrode impurities |
App note: Assessment of contaminants within battery materials via Axia ChemiSEM |
Identification of impurities for root cause analysis is difficult using CT alone |
CT/SDB, EDS, Avizo |
A correlative CT/laser PFIB workflow can identify deeply embedded impurities without disassembling the cell |
App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries |
Abbreviations: Avizo = Avizo Software; CT = Computed tomography; DualBeam = Focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM); EDS = Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; FIB = Focused ion beam; ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; SDB = Small DualBeam; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SEM = Scanning electron microscopy; TEM = Transmission electron microscopy; TOF-SIMS = Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry.
Chemical compound analysis of batteries
Chemical compound identification using Raman and FTIR spectroscopy
Raman spectroscopy uses the interactions of light and molecular vibrations to produce spectra that are used to identify materials, characterize molecular structure, evaluate morphology, and monitor dynamic processes. Thermo Scientific Raman instruments are invaluable tools across a range of battery applications, such as identifying phases and structures in electrodes and differentiating specific carbon allotropes. Raman technology is fast, non-destructive, requires minimal sample preparation, and can be used in situ or ex situ.
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy provides molecular information about a sample that is complementary in nature to Raman. With advantages in compactness, multiplexing, throughput, and precision, Thermo Scientific Nicolet Summit FTIR spectrometers have numerous applications in battery research, development, and production, such as characterizing lithium and other reactive salts.
Raman and FTIR use cases for battery technology
Challenge |
Technologies |
Solution |
Resources |
Profile battery components ex situ without missing variability across an area |
Raman |
Raman microscopy can consolidate measurements of a component area or cross-section |
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Identify phases and structures in anodes and cathodes |
Raman |
Raman microscopy can visually show the spatial distribution of different phases of the same material with different performance characteristics |
App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part I: Cathodes |
App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes |
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Trace and map anode composition across charge and discharge cycles |
Raman |
Raman microscopy can be used for in situ monitoring of changes on electrode surfaces during charge/discharge cycles |
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Confirm the presence of specific carbon allotropes as anode components and in hybrid materials |
Raman |
Raman spectroscopy is particularly adept for analyzing allotropes of carbon, including carbon in hybrid materials |
App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes |
Understand the association of ionic species and distribution of components in solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) |
Raman |
Raman microscopy can be used to visualize the spatial distribution of components in SPEs and indicate ionic associations |
App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part III: Electrolytes |
Rapidly characterize lithium, metal oxide, and lithium compounds |
Raman |
Thermo Scientific Raman instruments can analyze these compounds quickly with minimal sample preparation |
Blog post: Using Raman spectroscopy during lithium-ion battery manufacturing |
Differentiate carbon allotropes, reveal anode material structure, and track changes during usage |
Raman |
Raman spectroscopy is particularly useful for distinguishing between different allotropes of carbon and evaluating the structural quality of these materials |
App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes |
Map degradation of the anode SEI layer |
Raman |
Raman microscopy can be used for visualizing changes to electrode materials and component distributions after a cell has been used |
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Characterize lithium and other highly reactive salts |
FTIR |
Compact Thermo Scientific Nicolet FTIR instruments can measure sample spectra within an argon-purged glove box using remote control |
App note: FTIR characterization of lithium salts in an inert atmosphere |
Monitor battery off-gassing or chemicals released during a fire, short circuit, or other hazardous conditions |
FTIR |
The Thermo Scientific Antaris IGS system with Heated Valve Drawer can quantify release of HF and other fluorinated gasses under overtaxed conditions like a vehicle crash |
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| During recycling or storage of lithium-ion batteries, the membranes of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) may damage, resulting in gas generation and potentially causing the battery to swell | FTIR and GC-MS | Combining the high-efficiency separation and quantitative detection of GC-MS with the unique structural identification of FTIR enables a complete analysis of complex gaseous samples | App note: Analyzing lithium-ion battery gases with GC-MS-FTIR |
Abbreviations: FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SPE = Solid polymer electrolytes; GC-MS = Gas chromatography mass spectrometry.
Elemental analysis of batteries
Elemental and structural analysis using XRF, XRD, and OES
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy provides qualitative and quantitative elemental composition from B-Am from sub-ppm to 100%. XRF analyses the bulk composition of powder, solid and liquid samples, with typical probing depth ranging from µm to mmm.
XRF is used during production to control the correct chemical composition of the cathode material, which impacts the performance of the final battery. As a fast, stable and reliable analytical technique, XRF is also ideal for quality and process control (QC) of raw materials and components entering the manufacturing stream to ensure compliance and detect impurities.
XRF, XRD, and OES use cases for battery technology
Challenge |
Technologies |
Solution |
Resources |
Elemental analysis and grade control of nickel, cobalt, manganese, iron and lithium ores |
XRF |
Our XRF lab spectrometers can quantify up to 90 elements in liquid or solid samples of mining materials, enabling control of ore body content for refinement and processing |
App note: Analysis of lithium raw materials with WDXRF |
App note: Analysis of Nickel Ore with ARL OPTIM'X WDXRF Spectrometer |
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App note: EDXRF Analysis of Nickel Ore as Pressed Powders in an Air Environment |
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Evaluate purity of raw materials |
XRF |
Elemental analysis from ppm to 100%, pre-screening for impurities in carbon black |
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Detect defects, inclusions, and imperfections |
XRF |
Elemental mapping and small spot analysis down to 0.5 mm |
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App note: Sample analysis using mapping with ARL PERFORM’X Series XRF spectrometers |
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Control the purity of anodes, cathodes, electrolytes, separators, and other components |
XRF, OES |
Wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) and Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES) allow routine, daily monitoring and control of impurities and contamination |
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Sort incoming materials to be recycled and control impurities in recovered metals |
XRF |
Black mass elemental analysis for recovery of metals, such as aluminum, nickel, cobalt, manganese and graphite |
App note: Analysis of traces in graphite |
Identify phases and determine structures in anodes and cathodes |
XRD |
XRD can help to identify and quantify specific polymorphic structures of interest to increase yield and efficiency |
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Study crystallinity, stability, and reactivity in battery materials |
XRD |
XRD can determine the percentage of crystallinity vs amorphous content of the active material, as well as structural stability and repeatability in real time |
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Follow charge/discharge reactions in situ |
XRD |
During charge/ discharge, the cathode and anode of every battery cell undergo changes. XRD allows to follow the changing phase composition and the evolution of the crystalline structure |
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Identify and quantify mineral composition in raw materials |
XRD |
Phase identification and structure determination in anode and cathode |
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Simultaneously quantify major elements (% level) and trace impurities (ppm, mg/kg) of a battery cathode |
ICP-OES |
The Thermo Scientific iCAP 6000 Series ICP-OES can accurately measure concentrations in solutions ranging from <0.006 mg/L to nearly 3000 mg/L (6 orders of magnitude) |
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Quantify trace elements in lead and lead alloys according to current standards for lead-acid batteries |
OES |
The Thermo Scientific ARL iSpark Optical Emission Spectrometer enables trace and alloying element analysis in lead-acid batteries |
Analysis of lead and its alloys with the ARL iSpark OES spectrometer |
Abbreviations: ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; OES = Optical emission spectrometry; XRD = X-ray diffraction; XRF = X-ray fluorescence.
Characterization of battery slurries
Rheological characterization of Lithium-ion battery slurry
Rheology is utilized to measure viscosity functions in different slurries to predict the flow behavior, stability, and process-ability in many stages of the battery manufacturing process from raw materials to manufacturing and quality control during the mixing process of making the slurry. The understanding of the rheological properties of an electrode slurry is necessary for a precise printing process to obtain batteries with a high capacity and a high number of charging cycles.
Rheological use cases for battery technology
| Challenge | Technologies | Solution | Resources |
Understanding the rheological properties of an electrode slurry is necessary to:
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Rheology | Rheometers are used to measure flow curves over a broad range of shear rates with high precision | On-demand webinar: Rotational rheometry in battery manufacturing and research |
Dispersive and distributive mixing of battery slurry
Optimize the battery manufacturing process using twin-screw extrusion
Twin-screw compounding offers a continuous production process with precisely controlled material shear, heat transfer, material throughput, and residence time. The twin-screw extrusion process provides high reproducibility, less cleaning time, and high material and labor efficiency.
The excellent dispersive and distributive mixing capabilities of a twin-screw extruder enable much more homogeneous cathode pastes as compared to alternative batch mixing in, for example, a dissolver. In return, this can lead to improved material properties.
Extrusion use cases for battery technology
| Challenge | Technologies | Solution | Resources |
Battery slurries are generally mixed batchwise in planetary mixers. Mixing is labor-intensive, has low material efficiency, and bears the risk of batch-to-batch variations |
Extrusion | Twin-screw extruders continuously compound slurries with high reproducibility. Control composition, material shear, and temperatures. |
App note: Continuous twin-screw compounding of battery slurries in a confined space |
Electrodes are generally coated by solvent-casting methods. Requires energy consumptive solvent evaporation and recycling techniques. Volatile solvents are hazardous and expensive. |
Extrusion | Twin-screw extruders successfully compound PTFE and active material to produce solvent-free slurries. High shear renders formation of PTFE fibrils binding active material grains. |
App note: Cost-efficient and ecological twin-screw compounding of dry lithium-ion battery pastes |
Wiegmann, Eike, Arno Kwade, and Wolfgang Haselrieder. "Solvent Reduced Extrusion‐Based Anode Production Process Integrating Granulate Coating, Drying, and Calendering." Energy Technology (2022): 2200020.
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| Astafyeva, Ksenia, et al. "High Energy Li‐Ion Electrodes Prepared via a Solventless Melt Process." Batteries & Supercaps 3.4 (2020): 341-343. | |||
Pure lithium-metal anode possesses the highest theoretical capacity. But, in conventional liquid electrolytes, dendrite growth and instability of lithium metal cause poor cyclability and safety of battery. |
Extrusion |
Extruders successfully used for solvent free preparation of a new thermoplastic polymer electrolyte with excellent dispersion. |
R. F. Samsinger, et al. "Influence of the Processing on the Ionic Conductivity of Solid-State Hybrid Electrolytes Based on Glass-Ceramic Particles Dispersed in PEO with LiTFSI" Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Volume 167, Number 12 Citation R. F. Samsinger et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 120538 |
| Francisco González, et al. "High Performance Polymer/Ionic Liquid Thermoplastic Solid Electrolyte Prepared by Solvent Free Processing for Solid State Lithium Metal Batteries" Membranes (Basel). 2018 Sep; 8(3): 55. | |||
| Huang, Zeya, et al. "Blending Poly (ethylene oxide) and Li6. 4La3Zr1. 4Ta0. 6O12 by Haake Rheomixer without any solvent: A low-cost manufacture method for mass production of composite polymer electrolyte." Journal of Power Sources 451 (2020): 227797. | |||
| Mejía, Alberto, et al. "Scalable plasticized polymer electrolytes reinforced with surface-modified sepiolite fillers–A feasibility study in lithium metal polymer batteries." Journal of power sources 306 (2016): 772-778. |
For Research Use Only. Not for use in diagnostic procedures.