Battery Research and Manufacturing | Battery Technology

Battery research and testing

Technologies to address battery research, production, and testing

Thermo Fisher Scientific offers a broad range of tools and instruments for battery research, control of raw materials, and production of current and advanced battery technology.

Analytical solutions that assess electrodes, separators, binder, electrolytes, and other components can help improve battery integrity and reduce the risk of battery failure. In the lab, in the field, or on the production line, the proper analytical instrumentation can help ensure high-purity lithium and other metals for battery development and manufacturing.

Whether you are producing current or improved lithium-ion batteries or designing and testing next-generation battery technologies, Thermo Scientific instruments and software will help you understand their chemistry and maximize their performance and efficiency.

Electron Microscopy	XPS	EDS	Raman FTIR
Multiscale imaging and analysis of battery materials.	Surface analysis. Quantitative chemical state.	Elemental imaging at high spatial resolution.	Chemical compound identification and imaging.
Software Operations, laboratory management, data management, visualization, and analytics

XRF/XRD/OES	Rheometry & Twin-Screw Extrusion	Complementary Technologies
Elemental and structural analysis.	Characterization of flow properties. Mixing of electrode pastes and polymer compounds.	Chromatography. Mass spec. Chemicals. In-line processing.
Software Operations, laboratory management, data management, visualization, and analytics

Inert Gas Sample Transfer Workflow

Sample transfer system

Sample preparation for scanning/transmission electron microscopy (S/TEM) analysis is one of the most critical and time-consuming tasks. It becomes even more challenging if the sample material is air- or moisture-sensitive. The Thermo Scientific Inert Gas Sample Transfer (IGST) Workflow uses tools like the Thermo Scientific CleanConnect Sample Transfer System to protect your sample throughout preparation and imaging, helping you stay focused on your research.

Explore the IGST Workflow

Electron microscopy imaging and analysis of batteries

Multiscale imaging and analysis using electron microscopy and Avizo

In battery research, development, and manufacturing, imaging techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), DualBeam (also called focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy or FIB-SEM), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are used primarily to study the structure and chemistry of battery materials and cells in 2D and 3D.

Thermo Scientific electron microscopy solutions can capture and analyze battery images ranging from the mesoscale or macroscale down to the atomic scale, which enables battery researchers and engineers to develop safer, more efficient, more durable, and more environmentally friendly batteries.

Electron microscopy and Avizo Software use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Avoid contamination of air-, moisture-, and/or beam-sensitive battery samples during preparation and sample transfer	IGST workflow: DualBeam, SEM/Desktop SEM (in glove box), TEM, Avizo, CleanConnect	Complete workflow to enable sample characterization of sensitive battery materials in their native state without contamination	Brochure: Seamless inert gas sample transfer workflow
			Data sheet: CleanConnect Sample Transfer System
			App note: Benefits of the Phenom XL G2 Desktop SEM's argon compatibility for lithium battery research
Detection of lithium is difficult using SEM, EDS, and TEM	TOF-SIMS	Accurately detect and map lithium in battery samples in 2D and 3D down to 10 ppm	App note: Ion spectroscopy using TOF-SIMS on a Thermo Scientific Helios DualBeam
	TEM	iDPC technology can clearly image light elements like lithium at atomic scale	App note: Integrated Differential Phase Contrast on Talos S/TEM
Characterize battery structure at different scales beyond the capacity of a single instrument	CT, SEM, Raman, DualBeam, Avizo, EDS	Correlative workflow allowing multiscale imaging and analysis of battery microstructure	App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries
			App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries
			App note: Understand degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries at different scales
Prepare a large 2D area on the sample surface with high polishing quality for 2D imaging and characterization	DualBeam (Plasma FIB-SEM), EDS	High-throughput automated spin mill with high surface quality	App note: Large area automated sample preparation for batteries
	SEM, CleanMill	Thermo Scientific CleanMill offers a dedicated workflow for air-sensitive samples, an ultra-high energy ion gun for fast polishing, and a cryogenic function to protect sample integrity	Datasheet: CleanConnect Sample Transfer System
	SEM, CleanMill		Datasheet: CleanMill Broad Ion Beam System
Characterize key microstructure properties (like tortuosity) for electrode structure performance correlations	DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo	3D characterization of battery structure · Hardware to image 3D battery structure at different scales · Software to automate 3D imaging data collection · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software workflow for image analysis and quantification	Blog post/video: Advancing lithium-ion battery technology with 3D imaging
	DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo		App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries
Characterize beam-sensitive materials like SEI at nanoscale	TEM, EDS, Avizo	Nano- and atomic-scale characterization of energy materials · Cryo-EM workflow for accurate data collection with superior EDS performance · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software for structure quantification and visualization	Brochure: Analytical solutions for battery and energy storage technology
			Webinar: Cryo- and in situ electron microscopy diagnosis-guided design of rechargeable battery materials for better batteries
			Webinar: Advanced characterization methods of electrochemical materials and interphases for better batteries
Characterize beam-sensitive separator samples without damage	SEM/SDB	Superior low-KeV imaging and a cryo-FIB milling solution allow characterization of separator microstructure in 2D and 3D	App note: Strategies for accurate imaging on battery separator structure
In situ kinetic analysis (like heating) via electron microscope	SEM	Multiple in situ heating stage choices with integrated software for Thermo Scientific SEMs to understand cathode synthesis mechanisms	Brochure: Scanning electron microscopy for lithium battery research
Probe intrinsic SEI within a coin cell via electron microscopy	Laser Plasma FIB	High-energy laser with high milling rate enables direct cross-section milling to understand Li-metal cell degradation mechanism	Webinar: Visualizing Li-metal anode battery degradation
Materials QC requires higher resolution than OM, but floor-based SEMs won’t fit in our lab and manual analysis is too slow	Desktop SEM	The Thermo Scientific Phenom XL Desktop SEM can handle high-resolution morphology analysis and QC of anode and cathode materials with high-throughput automation	Application note: FTIR characterization of lithium salts in an inert atmosphere
	Desktop SEM		Blog post: Analysis of graphite for lithium-ion batteries
Identification and quantification of metal impurities in materials is critical, but neither ICP nor optical microscopy does both	Desktop SEM, EDS	The Thermo Scientific Phenom ParticleX Desktop SEM can identify and quantify particle impurities with high-throughput automated EDS workflow	Webinar: How to certify your NCM powder quality with SEM+EDS
Detection of electrode impurities is slow and tedious using normal SEM-to-EDS workflow	ChemiSEM, EDS	Thermo Scientific Axia ChemiSEM integrates SEM with “live EDS” for immediate characterization of electrode impurities	App note: Assessment of contaminants within battery materials via Axia ChemiSEM
Failure analysis and QC in battery production requires SEM-level resolution, but floor models take too much space	Desktop SEM	Compact Phenom Desktop SEMs enable high-resolution, high-throughput analysis of battery materials	App note: Investigate batteries with a SEM for better performance
Binder characterization is difficult but crucial to confirm electrode mechanical structure	SEM, DualBeam	Superior imaging contrast of unique T3 detector for Thermo Scientific Apreo 2 SEM enables mapping of non-conductive binder distribution within electrode	Brochure: Scanning electron microscopy for lithium battery research
Identification of impurities for root cause analysis is difficult using CT alone	CT/SDB, EDS, Avizo	A correlative CT/laser PFIB workflow can identify deeply embedded impurities without disassembling the cell	App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries
Failure analysis requires high-resolution cross-section polishing while still protecting sample	SEM, CleanMill	CleanMill offers a dedicated workflow for air-sensitive samples, an ultra-high energy ion gun for fast polishing, and a cryogenic function to protect sample integrity	Data sheet: CleanConnect Sample Transfer System
	SEM, CleanMill		Datasheet: CleanMill Broad Ion Beam System

Abbreviations: Avizo = Avizo Software; CT = Computed tomography; DualBeam = Focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM); EDS = Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; FIB = Focused ion beam; FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; iDPC = Integrated differential phase contrast; IGST = Inert sample gas transfer; SDB = Small DualBeam; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SEM = Scanning electron microscopy; SPE = Solid polymer electrolytes; TEM = Transmission electron microscopy; TOF-SIMS = Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry.

Explore electron microscopy imaging and analysis techniques for batteries

XPS quantitative analysis of batteries

Quantitative surface analysis using XPS

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) is a surface analysis technique that provides quantitative elemental and chemical state information about the top layers of a material.

XPS is essential for understanding the interface between electrolytes and electrodes. Cathode and anode materials of Li-ion cells can be studied to confirm post-cycling changes in composition, to understand the changes in the chemistry of the electrode components, and to determine how the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) layer varies in depth as it develops. XPS has proved useful in studying surface pre-treatment of graphite electrode materials to significantly slow the irreversible consumption of material during battery charging.

XPS use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Understand stoichiometry of solid electrolyte film as a function of depth	XPS	XPS depth profiling can quantify elements at each depth
	XPS	XPS depth profiling can quantify elements at each depth	Webinar: Understanding surface reactions of the solid electrolyte interface via advanced characterization techniques
Characterize raw materials	XPS	XPS can be used to analyze the surface of powdered materials prior to formation of electrodes, determining stoichiometry and identifying contaminants
Measure electrode surface chemistry	XPS	XPS can quantify the chemical states present at the electrode surface	App note: Analysis of electrode materials for lithium ion batteries
Track the evolution of the SEI layer	XPS	Materials can be depth profiled using XPS and a cluster ion source to follow the development of the SEI layer after cycling
In situ electrode cycling	XPS	Electrodes can be operated in situ to monitor spectral changes as they are charged and discharged
Investigate changes in separator chemistry during cell lifetime	XPS	The surface chemistry of polymeric materials is easily characterized using XPS

Abbreviations: XPS = X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Explore XPS techniques for batteries

High spatial resolution elemental analysis of batteries

Elemental imaging at high spatial resolution using EDS

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS or EDX) is a commonly used analytical method that permits fast, accurate, non-destructive compositional analysis while using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The physical interaction of the electron beam with the sample generates X-rays that are characteristic of the sample’s elemental composition and allow the identification and interpretation of the spatial distribution of materials within a sample.

For battery research, EDS is an invaluable tool for identifying intended materials within a battery as well as the contaminants that limit its performance or safety.

EDS use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Characterize battery structure at different scales beyond the capacity of a single instrument	CT, SEM, Raman, DualBeam, Avizo, EDS	Correlative workflow allowing multiscale imaging and analysis of battery microstructure	App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries
			App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries
			App note: Understand degradation mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries at different scales
Prepare a large 2D area on the sample surface with high polishing quality for 2D imaging and characterization	DualBeam (Plasma FIB-SEM), EDS	High-throughput automated spin mill with high surface quality	App note: Large area automated sample preparation for batteries
Characterize key microstructure properties (like tortuosity) for electrode structure performance correlations	DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo	3D characterization of battery structure · Hardware to image 3D battery structure at different scales · Software to automate 3D imaging data collection · Thermo Scientific Avizo Software workflow for image analysis and quantification	Blog post/video: Advancing lithium-ion battery technology with 3D imaging
	DualBeam, EDS, TOF-SIMS, Avizo		App note: Multiscale image-based control and characterization of lithium-ion batteries
Characterize beam-sensitive materials like SEI at nanoscale	TEM, EDS, Avizo	Nano- and atomic-scale characterization of energy materials · Cryo-EM workflow for accurate data collection with superior EDS performance · Avizo Software for structure quantification and visualization	Brochure: Analytical solutions for battery and energy storage technology
			Webinar: Cryo- and in situ electron microscopy diagnosis-guided design of rechargeable battery materials for better batteries
			Webinar: Advanced characterization methods of electrochemical materials and interphases for better batteries
Identification and quantification of metal impurities in materials is critical, but neither ICP nor optical microscopy does both	Desktop SEM, EDS	The Phenom ParticleX Desktop SEM can identify and quantify particle impurities with high-throughput automated EDS workflow	Webinar: How to certify your NCM powder quality with SEM+EDS
Detection of electrode impurities is slow and tedious using normal SEM-to-EDS workflow	ChemiSEM, EDS	Axia ChemiSEM integrates SEM with “live EDS” for immediate characterization of electrode impurities	App note: Assessment of contaminants within battery materials via Axia ChemiSEM
Identification of impurities for root cause analysis is difficult using CT alone	CT/SDB, EDS, Avizo	A correlative CT/laser PFIB workflow can identify deeply embedded impurities without disassembling the cell	App note: Multiscale 3D imaging solutions for Li-ion batteries

Abbreviations: Avizo = Avizo Software; CT = Computed tomography; DualBeam = Focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM); EDS = Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy; FIB = Focused ion beam; ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; SDB = Small DualBeam; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SEM = Scanning electron microscopy; TEM = Transmission electron microscopy; TOF-SIMS = Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry.

Explore EDS techniques for batteries

Chemical compound analysis of batteries

Chemical compound identification using Raman and FTIR spectroscopy

Raman spectroscopy uses the interactions of light and molecular vibrations to produce spectra that are used to identify materials, characterize molecular structure, evaluate morphology, and monitor dynamic processes. Thermo Scientific Raman instruments are invaluable tools across a range of battery applications, such as identifying phases and structures in electrodes and differentiating specific carbon allotropes. Raman technology is fast, non-destructive, requires minimal sample preparation, and can be used in situ or ex situ.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy provides molecular information about a sample that is complementary in nature to Raman. With advantages in compactness, multiplexing, throughput, and precision, Thermo Scientific Nicolet Summit FTIR spectrometers have numerous applications in battery research, development, and production, such as characterizing lithium and other reactive salts.

eBook: From Spectrum to Power: Advanced Spectroscopy in Battery Production

Raman and FTIR use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Profile battery components ex situ without missing variability across an area	Raman	Raman microscopy can consolidate measurements of a component area or cross-section	App note: Ex situ Raman analysis of Li-ion batteries
Identify phases and structures in anodes and cathodes	Raman	Raman microscopy can visually show the spatial distribution of different phases of the same material with different performance characteristics	App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part I: Cathodes
Identify phases and structures in anodes and cathodes	Raman		App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes
Trace and map anode composition across charge and discharge cycles	Raman	Raman microscopy can be used for in situ monitoring of changes on electrode surfaces during charge/discharge cycles	App note: In situ Raman analysis of Li-ion batteries
Confirm the presence of specific carbon allotropes as anode components and in hybrid materials	Raman	Raman spectroscopy is particularly adept for analyzing allotropes of carbon, including carbon in hybrid materials	App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes
Understand the association of ionic species and distribution of components in solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs)	Raman	Raman microscopy can be used to visualize the spatial distribution of components in SPEs and indicate ionic associations	App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part III: Electrolytes
Rapidly characterize lithium, metal oxide, and lithium compounds	Raman	Thermo Scientific Raman instruments can analyze these compounds quickly with minimal sample preparation	Blog post: Using Raman spectroscopy during lithium-ion battery manufacturing
Differentiate carbon allotropes, reveal anode material structure, and track changes during usage	Raman	Raman spectroscopy is particularly useful for distinguishing between different allotropes of carbon and evaluating the structural quality of these materials	App note: Raman analysis of lithium-ion batteries – Part II: Anodes
Map degradation of the anode SEI layer	Raman	Raman microscopy can be used for visualizing changes to electrode materials and component distributions after a cell has been used	App note: Ex situ Raman analysis of Li-ion batteries
Characterize lithium and other highly reactive salts	FTIR	Compact Thermo Scientific Nicolet FTIR instruments can measure sample spectra within an argon-purged glove box using remote control	App note: FTIR characterization of lithium salts in an inert atmosphere
Monitor battery off-gassing or chemicals released during a fire, short circuit, or other hazardous conditions	FTIR	The Thermo Scientific Antaris IGS system with Heated Valve Drawer can quantify release of HF and other fluorinated gasses under overtaxed conditions like a vehicle crash	Tech note: Gas-phase FTIR for smoke toxicity measurements
During recycling or storage of lithium-ion batteries, the membranes of the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) may damage, resulting in gas generation and potentially causing the battery to swell	FTIR and GC-MS	Combining the high-efficiency separation and quantitative detection of GC-MS with the unique structural identification of FTIR enables a complete analysis of complex gaseous samples	App note: Analyzing lithium-ion battery gases with GC-MS-FTIR

Abbreviations: FTIR = Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy; SEI = Solid electrolyte interface; SPE = Solid polymer electrolytes; GC-MS = Gas chromatography mass spectrometry.

Explore Raman and FTIR spectroscopy techniques for batteries

Elemental analysis of batteries

Elemental and structural analysis using XRF, XRD, and OES

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy provides qualitative and quantitative elemental composition from B-Am from sub-ppm to 100%. XRF analyses the bulk composition of powder, solid and liquid samples, with typical probing depth ranging from µm to mmm.

XRF is used during production to control the correct chemical composition of the cathode material, which impacts the performance of the final battery. As a fast, stable and reliable analytical technique, XRF is also ideal for quality and process control (QC) of raw materials and components entering the manufacturing stream to ensure compliance and detect impurities.

XRF, XRD, and OES use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Elemental analysis and grade control of nickel, cobalt, manganese, iron and lithium ores	XRF	Our XRF lab spectrometers can quantify up to 90 elements in liquid or solid samples of mining materials, enabling control of ore body content for refinement and processing	App note: Analysis of lithium raw materials with WDXRF
			App note: Analysis of Nickel Ore with ARL OPTIM'X WDXRF Spectrometer
			App note: EDXRF Analysis of Nickel Ore as Pressed Powders in an Air Environment
Evaluate purity of raw materials	XRF	Elemental analysis from ppm to 100%, pre-screening for impurities in carbon black	Brochure: X-ray Product Range
Detect defects, inclusions, and imperfections	XRF	Elemental mapping and small spot analysis down to 0.5 mm	App note: Small spot analysis: Performance in ferrous base
			App note: Sample analysis using elemental mapping at low power with Thermo Scientific ARL PERFORM’X 1500 W Advanced WDXRF Spectrometer
			App note: Sample analysis using mapping with ARL PERFORM’X Series XRF spectrometers
Control the purity of anodes, cathodes, electrolytes, separators, and other components	XRF, OES	Wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (WDXRF) and Optical Emission Spectrometry (OES) allow routine, daily monitoring and control of impurities and contamination	App note: Analysis of traces in graphite
Sort incoming materials to be recycled and control impurities in recovered metals	XRF	Black mass elemental analysis for recovery of metals, such as aluminum, nickel, cobalt, manganese and graphite	App note: Analysis of traces in graphite
Identify phases and determine structures in anodes and cathodes	XRD	XRD can help to identify and quantify specific polymorphic structures of interest to increase yield and efficiency	Brochure: ARL EQUINOX 100 X-ray Diffractometers
Study crystallinity, stability, and reactivity in battery materials	XRD	XRD can determine the percentage of crystallinity vs amorphous content of the active material, as well as structural stability and repeatability in real time	Brochure: ARL EQUINOX 100 X-ray Diffractometers
Follow charge/discharge reactions in situ	XRD	During charge/ discharge, the cathode and anode of every battery cell undergo changes. XRD allows to follow the changing phase composition and the evolution of the crystalline structure	Webinar: Drill down to microstructures with XRD
Identify and quantify mineral composition in raw materials	XRD	Phase identification and structure determination in anode and cathode	Brochure: ARL EQUINOX 100 X-ray Diffractometers
Simultaneously quantify major elements (% level) and trace impurities (ppm, mg/kg) of a battery cathode	ICP-OES	The Thermo Scientific iCAP 6000 Series ICP-OES can accurately measure concentrations in solutions ranging from <0.006 mg/L to nearly 3000 mg/L (6 orders of magnitude)	App note: Simultaneous determination of impurities and major elements in lithium-ion battery cathodes using the Thermo Scientific iCAP 6000 Series Radial ICP-OES
Quantify trace elements in lead and lead alloys according to current standards for lead-acid batteries	OES	The Thermo Scientific ARL iSpark Optical Emission Spectrometer enables trace and alloying element analysis in lead-acid batteries	Analysis of lead and its alloys with the ARL iSpark OES spectrometer

Abbreviations: ICP = Inductively coupled plasma; OES = Optical emission spectrometry; XRD = X-ray diffraction; XRF = X-ray fluorescence.

Characterization of battery slurries

Rheological characterization of Lithium-ion battery slurry

Rheology is utilized to measure viscosity functions in different slurries to predict the flow behavior, stability, and process-ability in many stages of the battery manufacturing process from raw materials to manufacturing and quality control during the mixing process of making the slurry. The understanding of the rheological properties of an electrode slurry is necessary for a precise printing process to obtain batteries with a high capacity and a high number of charging cycles.

Rheological use cases for battery technology

Challenge

Technologies

Solution

Resources

Understanding the rheological properties of an electrode slurry is necessary to:

Optimize the coating process
Define the storage handling
Characterize the quality of dispersion as a predictor for cell performance

Rheology

Rheometers are used to measure flow curves over a broad range of shear rates with high precision

On-demand webinar: Rotational rheometry in battery manufacturing and research

Application note: Benefits of solvent-reduced twin-screw compounding for cost-efficient, eco-friendly, and high-performing lithium-ion batteries

Explore rheology and extrusion techniques for batteries

Dispersive and distributive mixing of battery slurry

Optimize the battery manufacturing process using twin-screw extrusion

Twin-screw compounding offers a continuous production process with precisely controlled material shear, heat transfer, material throughput, and residence time. The twin-screw extrusion process provides high reproducibility, less cleaning time, and high material and labor efficiency.

The excellent dispersive and distributive mixing capabilities of a twin-screw extruder enable much more homogeneous cathode pastes as compared to alternative batch mixing in, for example, a dissolver. In return, this can lead to improved material properties.

Extrusion use cases for battery technology

Challenge	Technologies	Solution	Resources
Battery slurries are generally mixed batchwise in planetary mixers. Mixing is labor-intensive, has low material efficiency, and bears the risk of batch-to-batch variations	Extrusion	Twin-screw extruders continuously compound slurries with high reproducibility. Control composition, material shear, and temperatures.	App note: Continuous twin-screw compounding of battery slurries in a confined space
Electrodes are generally coated by solvent-casting methods. Requires energy consumptive solvent evaporation and recycling techniques. Volatile solvents are hazardous and expensive.	Extrusion	Twin-screw extruders successfully compound PTFE and active material to produce solvent-free slurries. High shear renders formation of PTFE fibrils binding active material grains.	App note: Cost-efficient and ecological twin-screw compounding of dry lithium-ion battery pastes
			Wiegmann, Eike, Arno Kwade, and Wolfgang Haselrieder. "Solvent Reduced Extrusion‐Based Anode Production Process Integrating Granulate Coating, Drying, and Calendering." Energy Technology (2022): 2200020.
			Astafyeva, Ksenia, et al. "High Energy Li‐Ion Electrodes Prepared via a Solventless Melt Process." Batteries & Supercaps 3.4 (2020): 341-343.
Pure lithium-metal anode possesses the highest theoretical capacity. But, in conventional liquid electrolytes, dendrite growth and instability of lithium metal cause poor cyclability and safety of battery.	Extrusion	Extruders successfully used for solvent free preparation of a new thermoplastic polymer electrolyte with excellent dispersion.	R. F. Samsinger, et al. "Influence of the Processing on the Ionic Conductivity of Solid-State Hybrid Electrolytes Based on Glass-Ceramic Particles Dispersed in PEO with LiTFSI" Journal of The Electrochemical Society, Volume 167, Number 12 Citation R. F. Samsinger et al 2020 J. Electrochem. Soc. 167 120538
			Francisco González, et al. "High Performance Polymer/Ionic Liquid Thermoplastic Solid Electrolyte Prepared by Solvent Free Processing for Solid State Lithium Metal Batteries" Membranes (Basel). 2018 Sep; 8(3): 55.
			Huang, Zeya, et al. "Blending Poly (ethylene oxide) and Li6. 4La3Zr1. 4Ta0. 6O12 by Haake Rheomixer without any solvent: A low-cost manufacture method for mass production of composite polymer electrolyte." Journal of Power Sources 451 (2020): 227797.
			Mejía, Alberto, et al. "Scalable plasticized polymer electrolytes reinforced with surface-modified sepiolite fillers–A feasibility study in lithium metal polymer batteries." Journal of power sources 306 (2016): 772-778.